Synopsis of Syntax

100 MAIN CLAUSES

110 VERB IN INDICATIVE MOOD

111. Statement aka Declarative (AG 437)

Used for direct statements with no verbal modification besides time.

e.g., Catullus Lesbiam amat; Catullus loves Lesbia)

2.2 intellegit, uidet, uiuit; 2.3 uenit, fit, notat, designat; . . .

112. Question aka Interrogative (AG 330-335, 437)

Used for direct questions with no verbal modification besides time.

e.g., Tune id audis?; Do you hear that?)

l.l abutere, eludet, iactabit; 1.2 mouerunt; . . .

120 VERB IN IMPERATIVE MOOD

121. Command aka Imperative (AG 448)

Imperatives express commands.

e.g., Mitte mihi nuncium; Send me a message)

6.4 muta, crede, obliuiscere; 8.3 recognosce; . . .

130 VERB IN SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

131. Hortatory or Jussive (AG 439-440)

A hortatory or jussive expresses a command in the present tense of the subjunctive.

e.g., Vivamus mea Lesbia, atque amemus (Catull. v. 1); Let us live, my Lesbia, and let us love)

132. Deliberative Question (AG 443-444)

Used to ask the desire of the person asked. Also can express doubt or impossibility

of the thing asked.

e.g., Quid dicam? What am I to say?)

24.1 inuitem

133. Optative (AG 439-442)

An optative expresses a wish, whether possible, impossible, accomplished, or unaccomplished.

e.g., Utinam eum viveret; Would that she were living)

22.3 duint; 32.1 secedant, secernant, congregentur, secernantur, desinant, sit

135. Potential (AG 445-447)

A potential subjunctive is used in sentences that denote possibilities rather than desires or facts. The auxiliaries should, would, can, could, may, or might render this usage in English.

e.g., fallere te non ausim; I would not dare to trick you)

17.1 putarem; 17.2 mallem; 17.3 concederes; 21.1 intulisset; . . .

19.1 debeat; 22.2 frangat, corrigas, meditere, cogites;

200 DEPENDENT CLAUSES

210 REPORTED SPEECH

211. Verb in the Infinitive Mood

211.1 Indirect or Reported Statement (AG 580-582, 584)

The main verb of a reported statement is expressed in the infinitive with an accusative subject.

e.g., Dixit eam hodie adventuram esse; He said that she would arrive today)

1.3 patere, teneri; 1.4 ignorare; 5.2 factum esse; . . .

212.2 Indirect or Reported Command (AG 563a-d)

Iubeo and veto take an infinitive-accusative construction. Often, verbs of wishing, permitting, and decreeing do as well.

e.g., me redire non sinunt; They do not allow me to return)

2.5 duci, conferri; 4.5 hebescere; 4.6 interfectum esse; . . .

212. Verb in the Subjunctive Mood

212.1 Reported Question (AG 573-575)

Subordinate clauses introduced by interrogatives take a subjunctive verb.

e.g., quid agerem rogat; She asked me what I was doing)

1.4 egeris, fueris, conuocaueris, ceperis; . . .

212.3 Noun Purpose (AG 563) = Indirect Command

Subordinate clauses with ut or ne directed to the future which are  introduced by verbs of warning, persuading, commanding, wishing, wishing, permitting, or decreeing take a subjunctive.

e.g., imperavit ut hostes incurramus; he ordered us to attack the enemies)

4.1 uidēret, caperet; 5.3 faciam; 6.5 recognoscas; . . .

212.4 Reported Subordinate Clause (e.g., wish, relative, conditional)

5.2 dicat; 29.5 redundaret; 7.1 esset; 7.4 remansissemus; 18.3 increpuerit; 20.2 decreuerit; 30.2 peruenerit

220 RELATIVE CLAUSES

221. Relative Clauses with Indicative

221.1 Relative Declarative (AG 303-308)

The main verb of a relative clause which describes a fact about its antecedent takes the indicative.

e.g., vir qui notus est aggreditur; the man who is well-known approaches)

2.5 machinaris; 4.6 conuenit; 5.3 oportuit; 7.2 est; . . .

222.2 Relative Imperative

222. Relative Clauses with Subjunctive

222.1 Relative Characteristic (AG 535)

Relative clauses which express an idea that defines their antecedents’ character or nature take the subjunctive.

e.g., Catilina vir es qui urbem incendat; Catiline is the sort of man who would set the city on fire)

5.4 fateatur; 6.1 audeat; 6.3 exspectes; 8.2 audiam, uideam, sentiam; . . .

222.2 Relative Purpose (AG 531.2)

Relative pronouns or adverbs can introduce a purpose clause which takes a subjunctive verb.

e.g., Dicit Cicero qui Romam servet; Cicero speaks to save the city)

9.5 liberarent, pollicerentur; 24.1 praestolarentur; 26.3 ostentes

222.3 Relative Cause (AG 535e)

Relative clauses or characteristic can imply concession or causation.

e.g., Vir malus est qui fratrem interfecerit; He is an evil man because he killed his brother)

24.1 sciam, sciam, sciam

222.4 Relative Result (AG 537.2)

A relative pronoun or adverb can introduce a clause which implies result.

The relative is equivalent to ut + a demonstrative and thus takes a subjunctive.

e.g., Quis Antonio adversatur qui proscribatur?; Who opposes Antony who is not proscribed?)

223. Connective Relative

230 CUM CLAUSES

231. Cum + Indicative (Temporal) (AG 545, 547-548)

The conjunction cum is used to denote the time at which the action of the main verb takes place in both temporal and generalized clauses. The subordinate clause which cum introduces takes an indicative verb.

e.g., Cum Pompey advenit, incurremus; When Pompey arrives, we will attack)

232. Cum + Subjunctive (~3x as common as 231)

232.1 Circumstantial (AG 546)

A temporal cum clause takes a imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive to describe the circumstances surrounding the action of the main verb.

e.g., Cum Antonius perivisset, Octavianus solus rexit; After Antony had died, Octavian ruled alone)

232.2 Causal (AG 549)

When cum denotes a causal idea, it takes the subjunctive.

e.g., Necesse est Catilinam interfecere cum is rex velim esse; It is necessary to kill Catiline since he wishes to be king)

232.3 Concessive (AG 527, 549)

Cum, along with several other particles denoting concession, takes the

subjunctive.

e.g., Cum Catilina civis sit, interficiendus est; Although Catiline is a citizen, he must be killed)

8.1 confideres; 11.4 uidebam; 15.1 scias; 16.7 sis…oppressus; . . .

240 TEMPORAL CLAUSES (and PROVISO) (AG 543-548, 550-556)

241. Cum (see 231 and 232.1)

242. Ante/Postquam

Antequam is used in temporal constructions in much the same way as cum. It can take the perfect indicative to relate a fact of the past or the imperfect subjunctive to convey past expectancy or a past action that never ended up taking place. Postquam takes indicative past tenses, usually perfect, or the historical present.

e.g., postquam advenisti, Marcum quaere; After you have arrived, search for Marcus)

243. dum

In temporal clauses of expectancy, dum (until) takes the present or imperfect  subjunctive. Dum (as long as) takes the indicative and dum (while) takes the present indicative where English uses the imperfect.

e.g., Dum moriatur, Roma in pericula est; Until he dies, Rome is in danger)

250 CONDITIONAL CLAUSES

251. Real or Simple

251.1 Present Particular Condition (AG 515)

Present indicatives are used in the protasis and apodosis of present tense real conditionals, those which no falsity is implied.

e.g., Si Romae es, urbs salva est; If you are in Rome, the city is safe)

2.4 uitamus; 6.3 potest, illustrantur, erumpunt; . . .

251.2 Present General Condition (AG 518b)

Present tense generalized conditionals take a perfect indicative in the protasis and a present indicative in the apodosis.

e.g., Si Caesarem congressus est, Marcus eum salutat; If he ever encounters Caesar, Marcus always greets him)

31.3 biberunt

251.3 Past Particular Condition (AG 515)

Past indicatives are used in the protasis and apodosis of past tense real conditionals, those which no falsity is implied.

e.g., Si nemo eum vidit, Marcus ad Graeciam cessit; If no one has seen him,

Marcus as gone to Greece)

16.7 contigit; 29.5 contaminarunt, honestarunt

251.4 Future Definite Condition (AG 516a) = Future More Vivid

Future more vivid conditionals express a future supposition in the protasis and its logical future conclusion in the apodosis. Both the protasis and apodosis are expressed in the future indicative, though English typically uses a present in the protasis of these conditionals.

e.g., Multa disces, si ad Graecia cedet; You will learn many things if you go

to Greece)

5.2 iussero; 12.3 iussero, exieris; 22.4 induxeris; . . .

252. Unreal or Counterfactual

252.1 Present Unreal Condition (AG 517)

Conditionals which imply an present unreal supposition take the imperfect subjunctive in both the protasis and apodosis.

e.g., Si Pompeius in Italia esset, Roma servaretur; If Pompey were in Italy, Rome would be saved)

17.1 metuerent; 17.2 uiderem; 17.3 timerent, odissent, posses; . . .

252.2 Past Unreal Condition (AG 517)

Conditionals which imply a past unreal supposition take the pluperfect subjunctive in both the protasis and apodosis.

e.g., Si Cicero ad Graecia ivisset, non mortuus esset; If Cicero had gone to

Greece, he would not have died)

21.1 dixissem; 30.1 animaduertissem

252.3 Future Indefinite Condition (AG 516b) = Future Less Vivid

In Future Less Vivid conditions, the protasis conveys a future possibility and the apodosis its logical result. Both protasis and apodosis take the present subjunctive.

e.g., Si dei nobis nocere velint, nos perdant; If the gods should wish to

punish us, they would kill us)

19.1 loquatur; 27.3 loquatur

253. Mixed

Mixed unreal conditionals contain two different temporal aspects. The protasis and the apodosis will contain different tenses of the subjunctive.

e.g., Catilina rex esset, si Cicero eum non interfecisset; Catiline would now be king, if Cicero had not killed him)

254. Proviso (AG 528)

Proviso clauses, which express a provision on which an action is conditional, are introduced by the particles dum, modo, dummodo, and tantum ut and take the subjunctive. The particles are negated by ne.

e.g., Caesarem redeat, dummodo ne sui legiones quoque eo redeant; Let Caesar return, provided that his legions do not also return with him)

10.5 intersit; 22.5 sit, seiungatur

260 CAUSAL CLAUSES

261. Causal (AG 540.1, 549)

Causal clauses introduced by quod or quia take an indicative verb when the reason is given from the speaker. The conjunction cum, when it takes an indicative verb, can introduce a causal clause equivalent to those introduced by quod or quia.

e.g., non Romam redire possum quod pecuniam satis non habeo; I cannot return to

Rome because I do not have enough money)

10.2 sint; 11.1 effugimus; 12.2 audeo; 20.1 sint

262. Explanatory (AG 572)

Quod can be used to introduce a substantive clause which is regarded as a fact when it takes an indicative verb. Additionally, verbs of feeling can introduce an indicative quod/quia clause or an accusative and infinitive construction.

e.g., Mihi placebat quod Caesar ad Gallia mittebatur; It was pleasing to me the fact

that Caesar was sent to Gaul)

3.2 occidit; 16.2 putas; 16.8 uacuefacta sunt, reliquerunt.

263. Reported Causal (AG 540.2)

In causal clauses introduced by quod or quia, the verb will be in the subjunctive if

the reason is given by the authority of someone other than the speaker.

e.g., Antonius Parthiam incurrit quod Parthi legiones Crassi perdidissent; Antonius

invaded Parthia because [as he said] the Parthians had destroyed Crassus’ legions)

9.4 uiuerem; 19.4 essem, contineremur

270 PURPOSE CLAUSES

271. Adverbial or Pure Purpose (AG 531.1)

A pure purpose clause takes a subjunctive verb and describes the purpose of the main verb. As a final clause, it is introduced by ut or ne.

e.g., Livia Marcellum interfecit ut Tiberius imperator posset esse;  Livia killed

Marcellus so that Tiberius could be emperor)

6.1 possīis; 14.2 uideatur; 16.4 uidear; 18.4 opprimar, desinam; . . .

272. Relative Purpose (see above, 222.2)

280 RESULT CLAUSES

281. Adverbial or Pure Result (AG 537)

A pure result clause takes a subjunctive verb and describes the result of the main verb. As type of consecutive clause, it is introduced by ut or ut non.

e.g., Canes tam esurientes erant ut suum dominum ederent; the dogs were so

hungry that they ate their master)

3.3 coercerent; 15.3 uiderentur; 22.7 reuocarit; 32.2 uideatis

282. Noun Result or Consecutive Clauses (AG 568-569)

Noun result clauses are substantive clauses which serve as the object of the main verb and express the accomplishment of the effort described by the main verb. They are consecutive clauses, so they are introduced by ut or ut non.

e.g., efficiam ut non Romae noceas; I will make it that you do not harm Rome)

20.3 intellegas; 27.1 posses, nominaretur; 29.6 putarem

283. Relative Cause (see above, 222.3)

290 CONCESSIVE CLAUSES

291. Quamquam, etsi, quamvis (AG 526-527)

These concessive particles, meaning although or even if, introduce dependent clauses which concede something from the meaning of the main clause. Quamquam takes an indicative, quamvis a subjunctive, and etsi follows the same rules as si (see 250).

e.g., Quamvis imperator sit, non magnam potestatem habet; Although he is emperor, he does not have great power)

300 USES OF VERBAL NOUNS

310 INFINITIVES

311. Indirect Discourse (see above, 211)

312. Complementary (AG 456-457)

Complementary infinitives complete the meaning of verbs which imply another action by the same subject. Such infinitives, therefore, do not take subject accusatives.

e.g., ludos volo videre; I wish to see the games)

2.4 facere; 3.1 uastare; 5.4 inueniri; 6.1 defendere, commouere;

313. Subject (AG 452.1)

Subject infinitives serve as the subjects of sentences, often in those which have an impersonal as the main verb.

e.g., oportet deos colere; it is proper to honor the gods)

16.2 defigere

314. Historical (AG 463)

A historical infinitive stands in for an imperfect indicative, usually in narration. It takes a nominative subject.

e.g., Tum Lucretius de rerum natura scribere; Then Lucretius kept writing about the

nature of things)

315. Apposition (AG 282, 452.2)

An infinitive can be used in apposition with the subject of a sentence.

e.g., Caesarem interficere hoc factum scelus erat; this deed, to kill Caesar, was a

crime)

26.2 iacere, uigilare

320 USES OF GERUNDS

321. ACC: Purpose (AG 506)

When a gerund is used in the accusative after the preposition ad, it denotes purpose.

e.g., Ad Africa Scipio Aemilianus navigavit ad delendum Carthaginem; Scipio Aemilianus sailed to Africa to destroy Carthage)
19.5 custodiendum, suspicandum, uindicandum; 29.4 uiuendum

322. ABL: Means (AG 507.1)

In the ablative case, a gerund often denotes purpose.

e.g., multa disces hos verbos legendo; you will learn many things by reading these words)
30.1 credendo

330 USES OF SUPINES

331. ABL: Respect (AG 510)

The ablative supine is used with certain nouns and adjectives to express an action in reference to the quality expressed by the noun or adjective.

e.g., musica mirabilis auditu est; music is wonderful to hear
29.4 factu

332. ACC: Purpose (AG 509)

In the accusative, the supine is used after verbs of motion to express purpose. It can take an object.

e.g., Brutus necatum Caesarem advenit; Brutus has arrived to kill Caesar)

10.1 salutatum

400 USES OF PARTICIPLES

410 Passive Periphrastic (AG 500)

The passive periphrastic is formed by joining a gerundive with form of sum. This construction denotes obligation or necessity.

e.g., Roma servanda est ab Catilina; Rome must be saved from Catiline)

5.2 uerendum; 7.2 admirandum; 11.1 habenda; 11.2 periclitanda; . . .

420 Gerundive (AG 503)

When a gerund would have an accusative object, the gerundive is usually used instead, agreeing in case and number with its noun (compare this example with 321).

e.g., Ad Africa Scipio Aemilianus navigavit ad delendam Carthaginem; Scipio Aemilianus sailed to Africa to destroy Carthage)

1.2 habendi; 4.7 deponendam, confirmandam; 7.3 conseruandi, reprimendorum;

421. Future Passive Periphrastic

422. Pure Gerundive

430 Active Periphrastic (AG 498a)

Future participles are usually used with a form of sum rather than in agreement with a noun. This active periphrastic construction expresses future or intended action.

e.g., Claudia, nihil metuens mortuura est; Claudia, fearing nothing, is likely to die)

7.1 futuras

440 Ablative Absolute (AG 419-420)

When a participle is in agreement with a noun or pronoun in the ablative case, it expresses time, cause, or concession.

e.g., Roma incolenti, Julia Carthagine volo incolere; Although she lives in Rome, Julia wishes to live in Carthage)

10.1 dimisso; 11.4 concitato; 13.2 imperante; 29.5 interfecto; . . .

441 Temporal Clause

e.g., recentibus sceleris eius vestigiis (Q.C. vii. 1. 1);  while the traces of the crime were fresh)

442 Causal Clause

e.g., Dareus, desperata pace, ad reparandas viris intendit animum (Q.C. iv. 6. 1 ); Darius, since he despaired of peace, devoted his energies to recruiting his forces

443 Concessive Clause e.g., turribus excitatis, tamen has altitudo puppium ex barbaris navibus superabat (B.G. iii. 14); although the towers had been built up, still the high sterns of the enemy’s ships rose above them)

444 Conditional Clause e.g., qua quidem detracta (Arch. 28); if this be taken away)

445 Clause of Accompanying Circumstance

e.g., nec imperante nec sciente nec praesente domino (Mil. 29); without their master’s giving orders, or knowing it, or being present

450 Attributive (AG 494, 496-497)

Present and perfect participles are often used like adjectives, agreeing in case and number with their noun.

e.g., Cor flagrans Psyches Cupidinem cupivit; Psyche’s burning heart longed for Cupid)

1.2 munitissimus; 3.1 labefactantem, cupientem; 3.2 studentem; . . .

451 Temporal

452 Causal 

453 Concessive

454 Conditional